Abstract: Small−leaved lime Tilia cordata Mill. is primarily found in Poland as an admixture species, fulfilling important ecological, biocenotic, and cultural functions. Consequently, there is a continuous demand for high−quality planting stock of this species. The aim of the study was to compare morphological traits, root system characteristics, and nursery quality indices of three small−leaved lime stock types produced under standard nursery conditions, with particular emphasis on root system parameters as indicators of planting stock quality. Three stock types were analysed: one−year−old seedlings (1+0), two−year−old non−transplanted seedlings (2+0), and two−year−old seedlings transplanted after the first growing season (1+1). For each seedling, shoot height, root system length, and root collar diameter were measured. In addition, a detailed morphometric analysis of the root system was conducted, including total root length, root surface area, mean root diameter, and root volume. The dry mass of roots and shoots was determined, and functional indices (root tissue density, specific root area, and specific root length) as well as seedling quality indices (sturdiness quotient – SQ, shoot−to−root ratio – S/R, and Dickson Quality Index – DQI) were calculated. The results showed significant differences among the analysed stock types in terms of morphological traits and seedling quality indices. The most favourable nursery quality indicators were found in transplanted seedlings (1+1), which were characterised by the longest root systems (27.8 cm), the largest root collar diameter (8.0 mm), and the highest values of the Dickson Quality Index (1.01) and root tissue density (950.74). The greatest height was recorded in the 2+0 variant (61.6 cm); however, these seedlings exhibited considerable slenderness and an unfavourable shoot−to−root ratio (S/R=2.16). The obtained results indicate that transplanted seedlings may have greater planting suitability under the analysed nursery conditions, mainly due to more favourable biometric proportions and better−developed root systems. At the same time, the findings demonstrate that the assessment of small−leaved lime planting stock should not be based solely on height criteria, but should also include root system parameters and functional root traits as complementary indicators of nursery stock quality.
Key words: bareroot seedlings, morphological traits, nursery transplanting, root architecture, seedling quality, stock types

Abstract: A key challenge today is finding a compromise between meeting growing social needs and protecting natural resources. Spatial planning is a tool that can mitigate such conflicts, particularly with regard to land protection, including that of forest land. This paper presents the challenges that spatial planning faces in protecting and transforming forest land, especially in the face of increasing urban pressure. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of local spatial development plans in safeguarding and transforming forests under urbanization pressure. The hypothesis posited that these plans predominantly maintain forest functions while permitting the regulated conversion of specific forest areas to non−forest uses under stringent planning regulations. The territorial scope encompassed municipalities adjacent to the city of Warsaw that are subject to intense urban pressure, characterized by very high population growth, a high proportion of forest land, and a high coverage of local development plans. Three research sites were selected: the municipalities of Marki, Ząbki, and Kobyłka. To achieve the study’s objectives, forest land (marked as “Ls” in the land and building register) within the selected municipalities was identified using a GIS environment. The designations of these areas in local plans were verified, and their prospective development conditions were categorized into six established classes. The analysis determined the extent to which forest land retains its original designation in local plans, the area allocated for non−forest purposes, and the proportion of forest land not covered by local plans. To examine afforestation preferences, an analysis of land designations for forest purposes in local plans was also conducted. The study showed that despite strong urban pressure, most forest lands retained their forest status in local spatial development plans, with only specific areas being designated for residential purposes under restrictive urban planning parameters.
Key words: forest, spatial management, urban pressure

Abstract: The aim of this study was to determine the effect of the effect of fir mistletoe Viscum album ssp. abietis presence on the content of essential oils in fir twigs Abies alba. The research material was collected in the Gorlice Forest District, Łużna Forest Range (Regional Directorate of the State Forests in Kraków, Poland). Two healthy trees (without mistletoe) and four mistletoe−infested trees, approximately 100 years old, were selected for the study. The trees were then felled, and their twigs were collected and grouped into three categories: I – twigs from trees without mistletoe; II – twigs from infested trees, taken from branches where mistletoe was not present; and III – twigs from infested trees, taken from branches where mistletoe was present (a fourth group, IV, was also distinguished in the analyses, which combined groups II and III). Ten samples, weighing 100 g each, were randomly collected from each twig. The amount of essential oils in the fir twigs was determined using a Deryng apparatus. The obtained results indicate variations in the essential oil content of the fir twigs depending on the analysed sample group. In the samples collected from trees not infected with mistletoe (type I twigs), the average essential oil content was 0.861%. Lower essential oil contents were obtained in samples from trees infested with mistletoe (type IV), with values more than twofold lower than those from healthy trees. In the group of samples collected from branches of infected trees on which mistletoe was not directly present, the average essential oil content was 0.306% (type II). For samples taken directly from branches with mistletoe, the average essential oil content was 0.452% (type III). The comparison of mean values between the individual types of fir twigs indicates that the highest essential oil content was recorded in samples from trees not infested by mistletoe, while the lowest values occurred in samples taken from infested trees without the direct presence of mistletoe on the examined branches. These results confirm that the phytosanitary condition of fir trees significantly affects the quality of fir twigs, as determined by their essential oil content, which may be important when assessing the suitability of this raw material for further use.
Key words: biotic threats, deryng apparatus, distillation, fir needles, secondary use

Abstract: Afforestation belts are key components of transformed agricultural landscapes in the Ukrainian Forest−Steppe. Established during the 19th and 20th centuries, these 60−100−year−old linear plantations are undergoing advanced natural aging, canopy degradation, and spontaneous sylvan succession. Despite their artificial origin, they have developed into unique forest−like biotopes with distinct phytocoenotic structures, exhibiting an ecological duality that balances agroecological protective functions with spontaneous development. This study assesses the syntaxonomic diversity, structural organization, and ecological characteristics of afforestation belts in the Left−Bank Forest−Steppe of Ukraine in relation to macroclimatic and edaphic gradients. The study is based on 95 relevés. Vegetation classification followed the Braun−Blanquet approach and was aligned with the Prodromus of the Vegetation of Ukraine. Habitat ecological status was evaluated via phytoindication using Didukh’s ecological scales, mathematically rescaled to a unified 100−point standardized scale. Environmental differences across syntaxa were verified using one−way ANOVA with Tukey’s HSD post−hoc test (p<0.05). Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) with vector fitting was employed to visualize vegetation distribution and uncover socio−ecological gradients. The shelterbelt vegetation was classified into five associations within the synanthropic class Robinietea (order Chelidonio−Robinietalia pseudoacaciae), split between two alliances: Geo−Acerion platanoidis (Ass. 1: Elytrigio repentis−Aceretum platanoidis; Ass. 2: Poo nemoralis−Tilietum cordatae; Ass. 3: Geo urbano−Fraxinetum) and Sambuco nigrae−Quercion roboris (Ass. 4: Elytrigio repentis−Quercetum roboris; Ass. 5: Sambuco nigrae−Quercetum roboris). Communities exhibit clear vertical stratification with well−developed woody (average cover 0.68/68%) and shrub (0.48/48%) layers, whereas the poorly developed herb layer (0.20/20%) facilitates alien plant invasions. The overstory is dominated by autochthonous Quercus robur, Acer platanoides, Tilia cordata, and Fraxinus excelsior, though invasive species are widely naturalized. Phytoindication identified soil acidity (Rc), nitrogen (Nt), and moisture (Hd) as primary drivers of differentiation. Baseline conditions correspond to moderately moist (Hd 43.6), near−neutral (Rc 60.7), and low−salinity (Sl 34.2) soils. ANOVA confirmed significant ecological differences, particularly along the nitrogen gradient between Geo urbano−Fraxinetum and Elytrigio repentis−Quercetum roboris. DCA ordination demonstrated distinct floristic differentiation driven chiefly by soil acidity and canopy light transmittance. The results indicate that afforestation belts are dynamic ecosystems undergoing successional transformation influenced by canopy architectonics, microclimatic buffering, and intense anthropogenic factors. Severe edge effects and massive nitrogen runoff from adjacent arable fields maintain these communities in a eutrophicated ecotonal state. Acting as vital biodiversity refugia, migration corridors, and zones highly susceptible to biological invasions under macroclimatic warming, these communities require targeted, long−term management and conservation strategies.
Key words: afforestation belts, communities, phytoindication assessment, shelterbelts, vegetation

Abstract: Canopy height is a critical metric for assessing forest biomass, productivity, and ecological condition. Consequently, its rapid and accurate estimation remains essential for evaluating terrestrial ecosystem processes, dynamics, and services. In recent years, efforts to predict canopy height by integrating remote sensing technologies and artificial intelligence (AI) from regional to global scales have proliferated. This study evaluates the vertical accuracy of multiscale canopy height models (CHMs) in Andean Patagonia, assessing the performance of global (the High−Resolution Canopy Height Model of the Earth, HRCH; and the Global Map of Tree Canopy Height, GMTCH) and regional (the Nationwide Scale Native Forest Structure Maps, NNFS; and the Canopy Height Mapper, CH−GEE) canopy height products at spatial resolutions ranging from 1 m to 30 m. Model−derived vertical accuracy was quantified by benchmarking estimates against in situ dominant height references, which were calculated from forest inventory plots spanning representative native stands along altitudinal gradients. We assessed model performance using three criteria: observed−versus−predicted regression analysis, mixed−effects modelling of prediction errors, and canopy height profiling. Overall, mean absolute error (MAE) values ranged from 5.6 m (HRCH) to 7.9 m (GMTCH), while root mean square error (RMSE) values spanned from 6.6 m (HRCH) to 9.9 m (GMTCH). Compared with dominant tree−height field measurements, HRCH, CH−GEE, and NNFS tended, on average, to overestimate canopy height, whereas GMTCH exhibited marked underestimation. Our results indicate that HRCH, followed by CH−GEE, achieves the best performance and calibration, exhibiting moderate agreement with field data. In contrast, canopy height predictions from GMTCH and NNFS failed calibration and displayed poor predictive power. Prediction errors were strongly CHM dependent and systematically influenced by elevation, with all CHMs exhibiting increasing overestimation along the altitudinal gradient. GMTCH showed the greatest sensitivity to elevation, indicating reduced predictive accuracy in complex mountainous terrain. In contrast, HRCH was comparatively insensitive to topographic variability, whereas CH−GEE and NNFS displayed intermediate but more heterogeneous responses. Forest type was also a significant source of systematic prediction error, yielding differences from substantial overestimation in low−stature Nothofagus antarctica shrublands to consistent underestimation in tall, structurally complex Nothofagus dombeyi forests. HRCH, NNFS, and CH−GEE tended to overestimate canopy height at dominant heights up to approximately 20 m, after which errors shifted toward underestimation. Conversely, GMTCH systematically underestimated canopy height across the full range of dominant heights. None of the evaluated CHMs achieved the ±2 m accuracy threshold commonly considered suitable for operational forest height assessment. Nevertheless, the performance of HRCH and CH−GEE suggests that these products can provide valuable regional−scale information where high−resolution local CHMs or extensive airborne LiDAR coverage are unavailable. Overall, our results provide realistic expectations of the capabilities and limitations of current−generation CHMs and support their application in forest monitoring and ecological assessments across data−limited temperate mountain forests.
Key words: accuracy assessment, mountain forests, multisource remote sensing, tree height estimation

Abstract: Global climate change poses serious challenges, affecting the condition, productivity, and stability of forest ecosystems. Mycorrhizal symbiosis plays a key role in tree functioning (the hyphal network improves the uptake of water and essential mineral nutrients by colonized roots) particularly under environmental stress. The purpose of this article is to review the current state of knowledge regarding the importance of mycorrhization in forest adaptation to climate change and to evaluate its potential in forestry practice. Under changing climatic conditions, the traditional approach to mycorrhization, based on inoculation with a single fungal species, may prove insufficient. Selecting ectomycorrhizal species with complementary environmental functions for the development of mycorrhizal inoculants appears to be a promising approach. A multi−component inoculum containing the mycelium and/or spores of fungal species with diverse ecological functions could improve planting success, especially on post−agricultural land, and enhance tree resistance to drought, high temperatures, and other stressors.
Key words: climate change, forestry, inoculation, mycorrhizae, selection