Abstract: Intensive forestry operations can cause soil compaction. This negatively impacts soil structure and water movement, particularly in mountain forest ecosystems. This study examined the effects of repeated passes of forestry machinery on the soil physical properties, pore system, and water retention characteristics of Dystric Cambisol loam soil in a natural lower montane forest in southern Poland. Soil samples were collected from control (non−compacted) areas and from machine wheel tracks exposed to different traffic intensities (1, 4, >6 passes, and permanent skidding trails) at two depths (0−10 and 10−20 cm). Bulk density, total porosity, pore size distribution, and soil water retention characteristics were determined using undisturbed soil cores and pressure plate measurements. Low traffic intensity (1 and 4 passes) did not significantly affect soil physical or hydraulic properties compared with the control. In contrast, intensive machinery traffic and permanent skidding trails caused a significant increase in bulk density and a reduction in total porosity, particularly in the 0−10 cm soil layer. These changes were associated with marked modifications in pore size distribution, including a substantial decrease in macropores and large mesopores (0.5−50 µm), which are essential for plant water availability. Alterations in the pore system were reflected in reduced field capacity, available water capacity, and unfavourable relative field capacity values, indicating impaired soil air−water relations under high traffic intensity. In the 10−20 cm layer, soil physical and hydraulic properties were largely unaffected by machinery traffic. The results demonstrate that repeated and intensive machinery passes during forestry operations pose a significant risk to soil structural integrity and water retention in mountain forest soils. Restricting traffic intensity and confining machinery movement to designated skid trails are essential measures to mitigate soil degradation and support sustainable forest management.
Key words: European beech, forestry machinery, multiple passes, soil compaction, soil porosity

Abstract: The creation and maintenance of wildfire control measures in areas of woodland, heathland, moorland and grassland are necessary to minimise the losses caused by wildfire incidents, to prevent or reduce the spread of fire to other areas and to facilitate the fire suppression work of responders. Such measures keep wildfires small and increase the success of suppressing larger wildfires. However, in the UK, the scientific basis for these measures is very poor. To redress this deficiency, fundamental analysis of the status and capability of fire/fuel breaks and fire belts was undertaken in England and Wales. Data from surveys of the width of breaks and belts at 55 sites were analysed using a fuel model to provide data on the length of flames based on an extreme but realistic climatic scenario. The analyses were carried out for four different fire examples: (1) fire occurring near roads (fuel breaks), (2) fire occurring near tracks and paths (fuel breaks), (3) fire that occurs in adjacent vegetation including fire/fuel breaks but not fire belts, and (4) fire that occurs in adjacent vegetation and fire belt, and includes fire/fuel breaks. The analysis of fire behaviour considered the use of hand tools, and vehicle−mounted high pressure/low volume water pumps, to suppress fires. The average height and/or fuel model of the vegetation was also taken into account. Of the 55 fire and/or fuel breaks studied, 18 were not sufficient to provide effective passive or active containment of wildfires. From the modelling approach used, the management of fuel loading of vegetation adjacent to fire and/or fuel breaks is a critical factor in the effective of these prevention measures. The study identified minimum widths of fire/fuel breaks and fire belts for a range of habitat types, to allow safe and effective fire suppression.
Key words: fire ptotection, fire danger, fire protection, forest, forest roads, safety

Abstract: Dead wood, particularly coarse woody debris (CWD), is a key structural component of forest ecosystems, supporting biodiversity, carbon storage, and nutrient cycling. Its quantity and quality are strongly shaped by forest management, species composition, and stand development. This study assessed the volume, structure, and decomposition stages of dead wood in Roztocze National Park (RNP), with a particular focus on the effects of conservation regime, stand age, species composition, and stand density. Field data were collected in summer 2019 on 315 circular plots (0.04 ha each) distributed systematically across the RNP. Dead wood was inventoried as standing dead wood, lying dead wood, and stumps, classified by tree species, diameter classes, and five stages of decomposition. Statistical analyses were conducted using general linear models to identify the main drivers of dead wood abundance and structure. The mean volume of dead wood across the Park was 44.8 m³ha^–1, with a wide range (0−345 m³ha^–1). Lying dead wood accounted for 62% of total CWD volume, standing dead wood for 33%, and stumps for 5%. Most dead wood consisted of large−diameter elements (>20 cm), which are particularly important for saproxylic organisms. Silver fir had the highest contribution of dead wood, followed by European beech, despite Scots pine being the most common tree species in the stands. Dead wood resources were strongly influenced by the conservation regime: strictly protected stands contained over three times more dead wood (115.5 m³ha^–1) than actively managed stands (37.1 m³ha^–1). Stand age and dominant tree species were significant predictors of dead wood volume and decomposition stage, while basal area had no significant effect. Older stands and strictly protected areas were characterised by higher proportions of advanced decay stages. The results demonstrate that long−term strict protection substantially enhances both the quantity and ecological quality of dead wood. Nevertheless, the relatively low−intensity management applied in the active protection zone also maintains dead wood volumes close to biodiversity thresholds reported for temperate European forests. These findings highlight the importance of stand age, species composition, and conservation regime in shaping dead wood dynamics in protected forest landscapes.
Key words: coarse woody debris, European temperate forest, national park, nature conservation, snags, stumps, logs

Abstract: During last 50 years, Norway spruce stands in the Polish mountains have been affected by several outbreaks of bark beetles, mainly Ips typographus with accompanying scolytids. This paper describes the most significant outbreaks, based on data collected continuously by the Forest Research Institute for the annual assessment and forecasting of threats to Polish forests, as well as existing publications on individual cases. Six areas with the most notable outbreaks were selected: two in the Sudety Mountains and Foothills – western and eastern – and four in the Carpathians: Beskidy, Tatry, Gorce, and Radziejowa. According to Manion’s concept, the predisposing, inciting, and contributing factors are specified for each outbreak. The main predisposing factor in all cases was the proportion and age of spruce, further influenced in some cases by long−term industrial stress or root diseases. In some areas the main inciting factor was defoliation caused by foliophagous insects (Zeiraphera griseana, Cephalcia spp.), while in others abiotic factors such as wind or drought were primarily responsible for the initiation and development of the outbreaks. Root rot caused by fungal pathogens was also an important contributing factor (Beskidy). The total volume of Norway spruce trees harvested in mountainous forest districts due to bark beetle infestation between 1976 and 2024 reached 16.1 million m³, with more in the eastern region (Carpathians) – 9.9 million m³ than in the western region (Sudety) – 6.2 million m³. During the largest outbreaks in the western Sudety (1981−1988) and in the western Carpathians (2003−2014), the volume of processed trees infested by bark beetles was 0.9 and 4.3 million m³, respectively, but the consequences of spruce decline differed in each case (the need for forest cover restitution versus conversion to more resistant stands). Stands in protected areas, including national parks, were also affected by the outbreaks, the causes and consequences of which are also presented.
Key words: Ips typographus, mountains, outbreaks, Picea abies, population dynamics

Abstract: Root rot fungi are among the most important agents affecting the stability and longevity of coniferous forests. In this study, Phaeolus schweinitzii a characteristic brown−rot basidiomycete, is reported for the first time in Kosovo. The species was recorded in mature montane forests dominated by Picea abies in the Kuqishtë area (Pejë), where basidiomata developed at the base of living trees and on decayed root wood. Identification was based on detailed macro and micromorphological analyses in accordance with standard taxonomic literature. The occurrence of P. schweinitzii reflects long habitat continuity, stable microclimatic conditions and a high deadwood availability typical of well−preserved spruce forests. This new recording expands the known distribution of the species in the region and contributes to the understanding of fungal diversity and forest health in poorly explored montane ecosystems of Southeast Europe.
Key words: Basidiomycetes, forests, Pejë, root−associated pathogens, wood decay

Abstract: This paper presents the results of an analysis of the accuracy of young deciduous tree height estimation based on a dense point cloud and high−resolution photographs acquired using an iPhone 14 Pro equipped with a viDOC RTK Rover antenna during mobile laser scanning. The photos were collected during manual vehicle driving at an altitude of 1.4 meters above ground in the Paryż Forest District belonging to the Płońsk Forest Inspectorate (Mazowieckie Voivodeship, Poland). Tree height was measured from a normalized dense point cloud (GSD 0.001 m/pix) using a moving window of approximately 0.005 m². Ground measurements with a precision steel ruler (YT70715 YATO) served as reference data for accuracy and quality assessment. The ground control point measurements were conducted using the Pix4Dcatch Automatic Autotag Detection (AAD) with uniquely coded targets distributed across the forest plantation. A total of 900 two−years−old European beech Fagus sylvatica and 900 two−years−old pedunculate oak Quercus robur seedlings were measured: 100 trees in each of eighteen subsection for both species. The heterogeneous surface of the plantation resulted in a small camera optimization error, typically ≤1.0%. The Jensen−Shannon distance index was 0.0166 for beech and 0.0190 for pedunculate oak; the Wasserstein distance was 0.424 and 0.4725 for the same species, respectively.
Key words: dense point cloud, European beech, GNSS, mobile photogrammetry, pedunculate oak, seedling height, smartphone−based LiDAR, viDOC RTK